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Garfinkel, S. N., Abelson, J. L., King, A. P., Sripada, R. K., Wang, X., Gaines, L. M., & Liberzon, I. (2014). Impaired contextual modulation of memories in PTSD: An fMRI and psychophysiological study of extinction retention and fear renewal. Journal of Neuroscience, 34(40), 13435–13443. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4287–13.2014.

As opposed to the vigor index, the authors should correlate the magnitude of neural response to cue-onset and the latency to begin magazine or lever-directed responding. Do the authors also have video-taped recordings of behavior to additionally correlate responses to the onset of movement to either the lever or magazine? Boakes RA (1977) Performance on learning to associate a stimulus with positive reinforcement In: Operant-Pavlovian interactions (Davis H, Hurwitz HMB, eds), pp 67–97. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [ Google Scholar] Leeman, R. F., & Potenza, M. N. (2013). A targeted review of the neurobiology and genetics of behavioural addictions: An emerging area of research. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 58(5), 260–273. doi:10.1177/070674371305800503. Parkinson JA, Roberts AC, Everitt BJ, Di Ciano P (2005) Acquisition of instrumental conditioned reinforcement is resistant to the devaluation of the unconditioned stimulus. Q J Exp Psychol B 58:19–30 Goudriaan, A. E., de Ruiter, M. B., van den Brink, W., Oosterlaan, J., & Veltman, D. J. (2010). Brain activation patterns associated with cue reactivity and craving in abstinent problem gamblers, heavy smokers and healthy controls: An fMRI study. Addiction Biology, 15(4), 491–503. doi:10.1111/j.1369–1600.2010.00242.x.Rats were trained using a PCA procedure similar to those used previously ( Morrison et al., 2015; Tunstall and Kearns, 2015). Each training session began with illumination of the house light. Rats were initially trained over two sessions to retrieve sugar pellets (45 mg, Bio-Serv) from the magazine, with each session consisting of 50 rewards delivered on a variable interval schedule averaging 60 s. During the second magazine training session, rats were habituated to the recording apparatus (see below). Kapur, S., Mizrahi, R., & Li, M. (2005). From dopamine to salience to psychosis—linking biology, pharmacology and phenomenology of psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 79(1), 59–68. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2005.01.003. Secondly, we employed an ancillary stimulus—a 1 s auditory tone—that coincided with the delivery of reward. We found that this stimulus facilitated training by (presumably) helping rats understand the temporal connection between CS offset and reward delivery; but it is possible that the tone increased the salience of the reward delivery event, helping to enhance the receptacle-reward association at the expense of the CS-reward association. Alternatively, or in addition, the tone might have taken on some of the incentive salience that would otherwise have been credited to the lever, thereby reducing lever-focused behavior.

Flagel SB, Robinson TE, Clark JJ, Clinton SM, Watson SJ, Seeman P, Phillips PEM, Akil H (2010) An animal model of genetic vulnerability to behavioral disinhibition and responsiveness to reward-related cues: implications for addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 35:388–400

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After completion of Pavlovian training, rats were divided into two behavior-matched groups (based on the PCA index from the last training session). The “paired” group underwent a reward devaluation procedure via induction of a taste aversion: exposure to the US (10% sucrose in the home cage) was paired with illness via injection of LiCl. The “unpaired” group underwent a sham devaluation procedure in which sucrose exposure was paired with vehicle injection. Both groups received equivalent sucrose exposure in the home cage, and both groups received both LiCl and vehicle injections (see Materials and Methods); but only in the “paired” group was sucrose temporally linked to illness. Burns, M., & Domjan, M. (2001). Topography of spatially directed conditioned responding: Effects of context and trial duration. Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Process, 27(3), 269–278. Uncertainty also refers to variability in the value of the reward, for example if the cue is sometimes followed by a small, low value reward, and at other times by a large, high value reward. ST responses increase with uncertainty, especially when it combines uncertainty in both partial reinforcement and reward value. [24]Day JJ, Wheeler RA, Roitman MF, Carelli RM (2006) Nucleus accumbens neurons encode Pavlovian approach behaviors: evidence from an autoshaping paradigm. Eur J Neurosci 23:1341–1351. 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04654.x Tomie A (1996) Locating reward cue at response manipulandum (CAM) induces symptoms of drug abuse. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 20:505–535 Myin-Germeys, I., Delespaul, P. A., & deVries, M. W. (2000). Schizophrenia patients are more emotionally active than is assumed based on their behavior. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 26(4), 847–854. Consistent with prior studies using both Pavlovian tasks ( Day et al., 2006) and instrumental tasks ( McGinty et al., 2013), we found that a large proportion of NAc neurons (averaging ∼58%) exhibit excitatory responses to cues that are associated with reward. These cue-evoked excitations have been shown to encode the vigor of subsequent locomotor responses, e.g., approach to a reward-associated lever, including such factors as latency and speed, as well as the probability that a behavioral response will occur at all ( McGinty et al., 2013; Morrison and Nicola, 2014; Morrison et al., 2017). Interestingly, this encoding is much more prominent during tasks that require taxic approach – i.e., in which the cue elicits a novel action sequence – rather than praxic approach, in which the cue elicits one of a limited subset of possible actions ( McGinty et al., 2013). Indeed, NAc activity, as well as dopaminergic function, is specifically required for taxic but not praxic approach tasks ( Nicola, 2010). Selden, N. R., Everitt, B. J., Jarrard, L. E., & Robbins, T. W. (1991). Complementary roles for the amygdala and hippocampus in aversive conditioning to explicit and contextual cues. Neuroscience, 42(2), 335–350.